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What Is a Long Read on a Hard Drive

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College performance in hard disk drive drives comes from devices which have meliorate performance characteristics.[1] [2] These performance characteristics can be grouped into two categories: access time and data transfer fourth dimension (or rate).[three]

Access time [edit]

A hard disk head on an access arm resting on a hd platter

The admission time or response fourth dimension of a rotating drive is a measure of the time it takes before the bulldoze tin can actually transfer data. The factors that control this fourth dimension on a rotating drive are by and large related to the mechanical nature of the rotating disks and moving heads. It is composed of a few independently measurable elements that are added together to become a single value when evaluating the performance of a storage device. The access fourth dimension can vary significantly, and so it is typically provided by manufacturers or measured in benchmarks as an average.[3] [iv]

The central components that are typically added together to obtain the access time are:[ii] [v]

  • Seek time
  • Rotational latency
  • Command processing time
  • Settle time

Seek time [edit]

With rotating drives, the seek time measures the time it takes the caput assembly on the actuator arm to travel to the rails of the disk where the data will be read or written.[5] The data on the media is stored in sectors which are arranged in parallel circular tracks (concentric or spiral depending upon the device type) and in that location is an actuator with an arm that suspends a head that can transfer data with that media. When the drive needs to read or write a sure sector it determines in which rail the sector is located.[six] It so uses the actuator to motility the caput to that particular rail. If the initial location of the head was the desired track and then the seek time would be zip. If the initial track was the outermost edge of the media and the desired track was at the innermost edge then the seek fourth dimension would be the maximum for that drive.[vii] [viii] Seek times are non linear compared with the seek distance traveled because of factors of acceleration and deceleration of the actuator arm.[9]

A rotating drive'southward average seek time is the boilerplate of all possible seek times which technically is the time to do all possible seeks divided by the number of all possible seeks, but in practise information technology is determined by statistical methods or simply approximated as the time of a seek over ane-third of the number of tracks.[5] [seven] [ten]

Seek times & characteristics [edit]

The offset HDD[xi] had an average seek time of about 600 ms.[12] and by the heart 1970s, HDDs were bachelor with seek times of almost 25 ms.[13] Some early PC drives used a stepper motor to move the heads, and as a result had seek times as slow equally 80–120 ms, but this was chop-chop improved by voice gyre blazon actuation in the 1980s, reducing seek times to effectually 20 ms. Seek time has continued to amend slowly over time.

The fastest loftier-end server drives today have a seek fourth dimension effectually 4 ms.[14] Some mobile devices have xv ms drives, with the virtually common mobile drives at nigh 12 ms[15] and the almost common desktop drives typically being around 9 ms.

Two other less commonly referenced seek measurements are track-to-track and full stroke. The rail-to-runway measurement is the time required to move from one track to an adjacent rail.[5] This is the shortest (fastest) possible seek time. In HDDs this is typically between 0.two and 0.8 ms.[xvi] The total stroke measurement is the fourth dimension required to move from the outermost track to the innermost track. This is the longest (slowest) possible seek time.[7]

Curt stroking [edit]

Curt stroking is a term used in enterprise storage environments to describe an HDD that is purposely restricted in total capacity so that the actuator only has to motion the heads across a smaller number of full tracks.[17] This limits the maximum distance the heads can exist from any point on the drive thereby reducing its boilerplate seek time, simply too restricts the total capacity of the drive. This reduced seek time enables the HDD to increment the number of IOPS available from the drive. The cost and power per usable byte of storage rises equally the maximum track range is reduced.[18] [19]

Consequence of audible racket and vibration control [edit]

Measured in dBA, audible noise is meaning for certain applications, such as DVRs, digital audio recording and placidity computers. Low noise disks typically use fluid bearings, lower rotational speeds (usually 5,400 rpm) and reduce the seek speed under load (AAM) to reduce audible clicks and crunching sounds. Drives in smaller class factors (e.g. two.five inch) are ofttimes quieter than larger drives.[20]

Some desktop- and laptop-class disk drives let the user to make a merchandise-off between seek performance and drive dissonance. For instance, Seagate offers a set of features in some drives called Sound Barrier Technology that include some user or organisation controlled noise and vibration reduction adequacy. Shorter seek times typically require more energy usage to quickly move the heads across the platter, causing loud noises from the pivot bearing and greater device vibrations every bit the heads are rapidly accelerated during the start of the seek motion and decelerated at the terminate of the seek move. Tranquility functioning reduces movement speed and acceleration rates, simply at a toll of reduced seek functioning.[21]

Rotational latency [edit]

Typical HDD figures
HDD spindle
speed [rpm]		 Average
rotational
latency [ms]
iv,200 7.xiv
5,400 five.56
vii,200 4.17
10,000 3.00
fifteen,000 2.00

Rotational latency (sometimes called rotational delay or just latency) is the filibuster waiting for the rotation of the disk to bring the required deejay sector under the read-write head.[22] It depends on the rotational speed of a deejay (or spindle motor), measured in revolutions per minute (RPM).[five] [23] For most magnetic media-based drives, the average rotational latency is typically based on the empirical relation that the average latency in milliseconds for such a drive is one-half the rotational period. Maximum rotational latency is the time it takes to exercise a full rotation excluding whatsoever spin-up fourth dimension (as the relevant function of the deejay may have just passed the head when the request arrived).[24]

  • Maximum latency = 60/rpm
  • Average latency = 0.five*Maximum latency

Therefore, the rotational latency and resulting admission time can exist improved (decreased) by increasing the rotational speed of the disks.[5] This also has the benefit of improving (increasing) the throughput (discussed afterward in this article).

The spindle motor speed tin can use one of two types of deejay rotation methods: one) constant linear velocity (CLV), used mainly in optical storage, varies the rotational speed of the optical disc depending upon the position of the head, and 2) abiding athwart velocity (CAV), used in HDDs, standard FDDs, a few optical disc systems, and vinyl sound records, spins the media at one constant speed regardless of where the head is positioned.

Another contraction occurs depending on whether surface chip densities are constant. Usually, with a CAV spin rate, the densities are not constant so that the long outside tracks take the same number of bits as the shorter inside tracks. When the bit density is constant, outside tracks accept more bits than within tracks and is generally combined with a CLV spin rate. In both these schemes contiguous scrap transfer rates are constant. This is non the case with other schemes such as using constant bit density with a CAV spin charge per unit.

Effect of reduced ability consumption [edit]

Ability consumption has go increasingly important, not but in mobile devices such as laptops but also in server and desktop markets. Increasing data centre machine density has led to problems delivering sufficient power to devices (especially for spin-up), and getting rid of the waste rut subsequently produced, besides as environmental and electric cost concerns (see green computing). Most hard disk drives today back up some grade of ability management which uses a number of specific power modes that save free energy past reducing performance. When implemented, an HDD will change between a total power manner to ane or more ability saving modes as a office of drive usage. Recovery from the deepest mode, typically called Slumber where the drive is stopped or spun downwards, may take as long as several seconds to be fully operational thereby increasing the resulting latency.[25] The drive manufacturers are besides at present producing green drives that include some additional features that practice reduce ability, but tin adversely affect the latency including lower spindle speeds and parking heads off the media to reduce friction.[26]

Other [edit]

The command processing time or command overhead is the time information technology takes for the drive electronics to ready the necessary communication between the various components in the device so it can read or write the data. This is of the order of 3 μs, very much less than other overhead times, so information technology is usually ignored when benchmarking hardware.[2] [27]

The settle time is the time information technology takes the heads to settle on the target track and finish vibrating and then they do non read or write off track. This time is ordinarily very pocket-size, typically less than 100 μs, and modern HDD manufacturers account for it in their seek fourth dimension specifications.[28]

Information transfer rate [edit]

A plot showing dependency of transfer rate on cylinder

The data transfer rate of a drive (also called throughput) covers both the internal rate (moving information between the disk surface and the controller on the drive) and the external charge per unit (moving data between the controller on the drive and the host system). The measurable information transfer rate will be the lower (slower) of the two rates. The sustained data transfer rate or sustained throughput of a bulldoze will be the lower of the sustained internal and sustained external rates. The sustained rate is less than or equal to the maximum or flare-up rate because it does not have the benefit of any cache or buffer retentivity in the drive. The internal rate is further determined past the media charge per unit, sector overhead fourth dimension, head switch fourth dimension, and cylinder switch time.[5] [29]

Media rate
Rate at which the drive tin read bits from the surface of the media.
Sector overhead time
Additional fourth dimension (bytes between sectors) needed for control structures and other information necessary to manage the drive, locate and validate data and perform other back up functions.[thirty]
Head switch time
Additional time required to electrically switch from ane head to another, re-align the head with the runway and brainstorm reading; only applies to multi-caput drive and is about one to 2 ms.[thirty]
Cylinder switch time
Additional time required to move to the first rails of the next cylinder and brainstorm reading; the proper noun cylinder is used because typically all the tracks of a drive with more than one head or data surface are read before moving the actuator. This time is typically nearly twice the track-to-track seek time. As of 2001, information technology was almost 2 to 3 ms.[31]

Information transfer rate (read/write) can be measured past writing a big file to disk using special file generator tools, then reading back the file.

  • According to vendor specifications sustained transfer rates upwards to 204MB/s are available.[32] As of 2010[update], a typical 7200 RPM desktop HDD has a "disk-to-buffer" information transfer rate upward to 1030 Mbit/s.[33] This rate depends on the rail location, so it will exist higher on the outer zones (where there are more information sectors per track) and lower on the inner zones (where there are fewer information sectors per rails); and is generally somewhat higher for 10,000 RPM drives.
  • Floppy deejay drives have sustained "disk-to-buffer" data transfer rates that are one or 2 orders of magnitude lower than that of HDDs.
  • The sustained "disk-to-buffer" data transfer rates varies amongst families of Optical disk drives with the slowest 1x CDs at 1.23 Mbit/southward floppy-like while a loftier functioning 12x Blu-ray drive at 432 Mbit/s approaches the performance of HDDs.

A current widely used standard for the "buffer-to-computer" interface is 3.0 Gbit/due south SATA, which can transport well-nigh 300 megabyte/s (10-bit encoding) from the buffer to the computer, and thus is still comfortably alee of today's disk-to-buffer transfer rates.

SSDs do not take the aforementioned internal limits of HDDs, and then their internal and external transfer rates are often maximizing the capabilities of the bulldoze-to-host interface.

Effect of file arrangement [edit]

Transfer rate can be influenced by file system fragmentation and the layout of the files. Defragmentation is a procedure used to minimize delay in retrieving information by moving related items to physically proximate areas on the disk.[34] Some computer operating systems perform defragmentation automatically. Although automatic defragmentation is intended to reduce access delays, the procedure can wearisome response when performed while the computer is in utilize.[35]

Consequence of areal density [edit]

HDD information transfer rate depends upon the rotational speed of the disks and the data recording density. Because estrus and vibration limit rotational speed, increasing density has become the main method to improve sequential transfer rates.[36] Areal density (the number of bits that tin exist stored in a certain surface area of the disk) has been increased over time by increasing both the number of tracks across the deejay, and the number of sectors per rail. The latter volition increase the data transfer rate for a given RPM speed. Improvement of data transfer charge per unit operation is correlated to the areal density only by increasing a track's linear surface bit density (sectors per track). Only increasing the number of tracks on a disk can affect seek times but not gross transfer rates. Co-ordinate to industry observers and analysts for 2011 to 2016,[37] [38] "The current roadmap predicts no more a 20%/yr improvement in scrap density".[39] Seek times take not kept up with throughput increases, which themselves accept not kept upwardly with growth in bit density and storage chapters.

Interleave [edit]

Low-level formatting software from 1987 to find highest functioning interleave choice for ten MB IBM PC XT hard disk drive

Sector interleave is a generally obsolete device characteristic related to data rate, dating back to when computers were too slow to exist able to read large continuous streams of data. Interleaving introduced gaps between data sectors to allow time for boring equipment to get gear up to read the side by side block of data. Without interleaving, the adjacent logical sector would arrive at the read/write head before the equipment was ready, requiring the system to wait for another complete deejay revolution before reading could be performed.

Nonetheless, considering interleaving introduces intentional physical delays between blocks of data thereby lowering the data rate, setting the interleave to a ratio higher than required causes unnecessary delays for equipment that has the performance needed to read sectors more than chop-chop. The interleaving ratio was therefore normally chosen by the end-user to conform their detail computer system'due south operation capabilities when the drive was first installed in their system.

Mod technology is capable of reading data equally fast equally it can exist obtained from the spinning platters, and then hard drives usually have a fixed sector interleave ratio of 1:1, which is effectively no interleaving beingness used.

Ability consumption [edit]

Ability consumption has become increasingly important, not only in mobile devices such as laptops merely too in server and desktop markets. Increasing information center motorcar density has led to problems delivering sufficient power to devices (particularly for spin up), and getting rid of the waste rut afterward produced, as well equally environmental and electrical price concerns (see green computing). Heat dissipation is tied directly to power consumption, and equally drives age, deejay failure rates increment at college bulldoze temperatures.[twoscore] Similar issues exist for big companies with thousands of desktop PCs. Smaller course factor drives often utilise less power than larger drives. I interesting development in this expanse is actively controlling the seek speed so that the head arrives at its destination only just in time to read the sector, rather than arriving as quickly every bit possible and then having to wait for the sector to come around (i.e. the rotational latency).[41] Many of the difficult drive companies are at present producing Dark-green Drives that crave much less power and cooling. Many of these Light-green Drives spin slower (<v,400 rpm compared to seven,200, ten,000 or 15,000 rpm) thereby generating less heat. Power consumption tin can likewise exist reduced past parking the bulldoze heads when the disk is not in use reducing friction, adjusting spin speeds,[42] and disabling internal components when not in use.[43]

Drives use more power, briefly, when starting up (spin-up). Although this has niggling straight effect on total energy consumption, the maximum ability demanded from the ability supply, and hence its required rating, can exist reduced in systems with several drives by controlling when they spin up.

  • On SCSI hard deejay drives, the SCSI controller tin can directly control spin up and spin down of the drives.
  • Some Parallel ATA (PATA) and Serial ATA (SATA) hd drives support power-up in standby (PUIS): each drive does not spin up until the controller or system BIOS issues a specific command to do so. This allows the organisation to be set to stagger deejay get-go-up and limit maximum power need at switch-on.
  • Some SATA Two and later hard disk drives support staggered spin-up, allowing the computer to spin upward the drives in sequence to reduce load on the power supply when booting.[44]

Most hd drives today support some course of power direction which uses a number of specific power modes that relieve energy past reducing performance. When implemented an HDD will change between a full ability manner to i or more power saving modes every bit a part of drive usage. Recovery from the deepest mode, typically called Sleep, may have equally long as several seconds.[45]

Shock resistance [edit]

Shock resistance is especially important for mobile devices. Some laptops now include active difficult drive protection that parks the deejay heads if the machine is dropped, hopefully before touch, to offer the greatest possible chance of survival in such an event. Maximum stupor tolerance to date is 350 g for operating and 1,000 g for non-operating.[46]

SMR drives [edit]

Hard drives that use shingled magnetic recording (SMR) differ significantly in write performance characteristics from conventional (CMR) drives. In particular, sustained random writes are significantly slower on SMR drives.[47]As SMR applied science causes a degradation on write performance, some new HDD with Hybrid SMR technology (making information technology possible to adapt the ratio of SMR part and CMR office dynamically) may have various characteristics under different SMR/CMR ratios.[48]

Comparison to Solid-state drive [edit]

Solid-land devices (SSDs) practise not take moving parts. Most attributes related to the movement of mechanical components are not applicable in measuring their functioning, just they are affected by some electrically based elements that causes a measurable access delay.[49]

Measurement of seek fourth dimension is only testing electronic circuits preparing a detail location on the memory in the storage device. Typical SSDs will have a seek time between 0.08 and 0.16 ms.[sixteen]

Flash memory-based SSDs do non need defragmentation. Withal, considering file systems write pages of information that are smaller (2K, 4K, 8K, or 16K) than the blocks of information managed past the SSD (from 256KB to 4MB, hence 128 to 256 pages per block),[50] over time, an SSD's write performance tin degrade as the drive becomes total of pages which are partial or no longer needed by the file system. This can be ameliorated by a TRIM command from the organization or internal garbage collection. Flash memory wears out over time as information technology is repeatedly written to; the writes required by defragmentation wear the drive for no speed advantage.[51]

Run across also [edit]

  • vRPM
  • Hybrid drive
  • IOPS
  • Standard RAID levels

References [edit]

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_disk_drive_performance_characteristics

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